Aktiviti Kemahiran Motor Halus

Kemahiran motor halus memerlukan pergerakan otot-otot kecil, biasanya koordinasi dengan mata, tetapi juga termasuk pergerakan lidah dan bibir, menggerakkan jari-jari kaki dan koordinasi kaki-mata Kemahiran motor halus biasanya juga digunakan untuk tujuan berkomunikasi, kedua-dua fungsi dan ekspresif, misalnya menulis atau menaip teks, manipulasi peralatan atau membuat kerja-kerja seni.

Semasa berumur 3 – 5 tahun, kanak-kanak biasanya membuat banyak kemajuan dalam membina kemahiran motor halus dan kecekapan tangan. Walau bagaimanapun, kemahiran ini masih memerlukan masa, kesabaran dan banyak latihan. Kemahiran motor halus termasuk:

• Kawalan motor okular– kebolehan mata untuk mengikut dan memberi tumpuan ke atas objek di dalam ruang penglihatan.
• koordinasi tangan-mata – kebolehan untuk melaksanakan aktiviti dengan tangans, berpandukan mata memerlukan ketepatan dalam penempatan, arah, dan kesedaran ruang .
• Koordinasi kaki-mata – kebolehan untuk melaksanakan tindakan dengan kaki, berpandukan pandangan mata.
• Kecekapan tangan – kebolehan dengan tepat memanipulasi tangan dan jari-jari untuk menulis dengan kemas, melukis, kemahiran menaip dan sebagainya.
• Stereognosis – kebolehan untuk mengenal pasti objek yang tidak dapat dilihat menggunakan deria sentuh.
• Persepsi Tactile – interpretasi informasi dipindahkan melalui jari sehingga ke otak.

Untuk kanak-kanak mengembangkan kemahiran motor halus yang baik, ia juga memerlukan kemahiran sokongan yang diperlukan untuk menjadi lebih baik perkembangkannya. Sebagai contoh kanak-kanak perlu mempunyai kekuatan dan kecekapan tangans dan jari-jari sebelum mula memegang a pensel secara betul dan mula membuat aktiviti menulis. Ini boleh membantu mengelakkan cara menggenggam pensel yang salah.

Membina Kemahiran Motor Halus

Tidak kira berapa cekap anak anda pada tahap mana-mana kemahiran, selalulah menggalakkan dan motivasi mereka dengan pelbagai galakan positif untuk meningkatkan kebolehan mereka.

Ingat, setiap individu memiliki keunikan kekuatan dan kelemahan. Saya percaya di dalam hidup ini kita semua perlu belajar untuk memperbaiki kelemahan diri dan boleh diterima, berikan imbuhan untuk mereka di mana perlu sementara memusatkan permerhatian menggunakan, membina and menikmati kekuatan dan bakat.

Tidak semua orang sempurna. Tujuan melakukan aktiviti stimulasi ini adalah untuk membantu anak anda mengembangkan setiap kebolehan potensi uniknya, bukan untuk over-stimulate atau cuba untuk membentuknya menjadi super-babies!

Di bawah ini adalah beberapa cadangan untuk melakukan aktiviti yang boleh anda lakukan dengan anak anda untuk mengembangkan kemahiran motor halus. Walaupun ia secara umum, anda boleh menyesuaikannya bergantung kepada tahap kebolehan dan umur anak anda.

1. Aktiviti manipulasi:
1.1 Manipulasi doh: menggentelnya menjadi bola-bola kecil, memintal menjadi doh yang panjang dan sebagainya.
1.2 Mengoyakkan kertas menjadi cebisan kecil– menggunakannya untuk kolaj atau menggumpalnya menjadi sebiji bola.
1.3 Memintal surat khabar menggunakan kesemua tangan dalam satu masa untuk mengembangkan kekuatan otot.
1.4 Menguntai manik atau makaroni.
1.5 Aktiviti menguntai.
1.6 Memotong menggunakan gunting, menggunakan cengkaman yang betul.
1.7 Manipulasi penyepit baju untuk mengutip objek-objek kecil.
1.8 Bermain fingerplays.

2. Aktiviti sensori
2.1 Melukis menggunakan jari atau manipulasi terhadap benda-benda cecair dengan jari-jari dan tangan misalnya bermain lumpur, melakar menggunakan sos tomato (kicap) di atas pinggan.
2.2 Mengutip objek-objek kecil dengan jari-jari, seperti pegboard pegs, bijiran dan sebagainya.

3. Aktiviti untuk mengembangkan keseimbangan atau stabiliti
3.1 Berjalan seperti kereta sorong, berjalan seperti ketam, bergayut di taman permainan untuk mengembangkan kekuatan bahagian atas badan.
3.2 Bekerja di atas permukaan mendatar seperti papan hitam atau easel di mana memerlukan pinggang untuk dibengkokkan baik untuk membina kemahiran motor halus.

Posisi badan yang tegak menggalakkan posisi pinggang yang stabil untuk mengembangkan pergerakan ibu jari yang baik, kekuatan otot-otot motor halus dan menggalakkan penggunaan kedua-dua otot-otot tangan dan bahu

Jika anda tidak mempunyai papan hitam atau easel di rumah, tampal keratan akhbar atau bahan bercetak ke atas dinding dan biarkan anak anda melukis dan menconteng di atasnya.

Biarkan dia melukis bulatan besar, menggunakan seluruh tangan. Biarkan dia melukis garisan lurus melintang di lembaran kertas dari atas ke bawah, menegak dan melintang dalam kedua-dua arah, menggunakan keseluruhan tangannya.

Growth Milestones - FOUR YEARS

Every child is unique in his or her own way. Yet, there are certain similarities that children share with each other. With the help of many experts in the field, we have put together a collection of "Growth Milestones." This information is arranged in a sequence similar to a schedule of well-child examinations.

• Can you believe that four years ago your child was born? Boy, "does time fly when you are having fun." Now you know why your parents used to say that you were growing up too fast. Ties to your apron strings will begin to loosen as the 4-year-old develops more independence and self-confidence. Before you know it, it will be time to start kindergarten. In previous generations, moms and dads learned what to expect of their child from their mother, grandmother or another family member. Today, most families are so scattered that parents do not have this help available. Therefore, do not hesitate to ask any questions you might have about your child's growth and development during the four year checkup. This is the reason for regular well-child exams.

• Parenting and Behavioral
• The 4-year-old really enjoys playmates. At this stage the toddler will begin to play cooperatively with others.
• It is normal for children this age to have imaginary friends. Parents can sometimes use the youngster's imaginary "playmate" to their advantage (like getting your 4-year-old to do something you want him or her to do.)
• Limit television viewing to one hour per day. Do not use the TV as a baby sitter or it as a substitute for interaction with your child. Watch children's programs with your child when possible.
• Do not worry if your child becomes curious about body parts. This is normal at this age. Always use the correct terms for genitals. Modesty and a desire for privacy begin to emerge at this age. When your child starts to want privacy of his or her own, let your child know that you think this is good.
• Your child may continue to use a security object (such as a blanket, favorite stuffed toy, night light, etc.). This is normal and your youngster will give up the item when he or she is ready.
• If you are expecting another baby, discuss with your child's physician how to prepare your 4-year-old.
• Allow your child to participate in setting and cleaning up the table. Always praise him or her for a job well done.
• Provide some type of structured learning environment in preparation for kindergarten next year. Examples include preschool, Head Start or Sunday School. Show an interest in your child's preschool activities.

Discipline

• Discipline should be firm and consistent, but loving and understanding. Praise your child for his or her good behavior and accomplishments.
• Continue to allow your 4-year-old to make choices whenever possible but the choices should be limited to those you can live with ("red shirt or green shirt"). Never ask a 4-year-old an open question ("Do you want to take a bath") unless you are willing to accept the answer.
• Use the two "I's" of discipline (ignore or isolate) rather than the two "S's" (shouting or spanking). When disciplining, try to separate your child and his or her behavior ("I love you, but I do not like it when you touch the VCR.")
• Provide your 4-year-old with clearly stated limits along with an explanation of the consequences if rules are broken. Making children stand in the corner ("time out" by themselves for four minutes is usually an effective punishment. If you have any questions about your child's behavior, discuss them with the doctor.
• Meaningless threats are ineffective. Follow through with the previously stated consequences when rules are broken.
• Whenever possible, give reprimands privately.
• Always bear in mind the positive effects of praise.

• Development
• Speech is almost always understandable.
• Can usually count from 1 to 10.
• Can walk on tiptoes, climb a ladder and ride a tricycle.
• May name and match three or four primary colors.
• Knows his or her own name.
• Correctly uses the pronoun "I."
• Children this age recognize gender differences and will correctly say "I am a girl" or "I am a boy."
• Can dress and undress with supervision but still has trouble with laces and buttons. Children this age also begin to be selective about what they wear.
• Holds and uses a pencil with good control. Can copy a cross, circle and possibly a square.
• Can to draw a person with a face, arms and legs.
• Engages in conversational "give-and-take."
• Can sing a song.
• Talks about his or her day's activities and experiences.
• Can identify emotions such as sadness, anger, anxiety and fear.
• Enjoys the companionship of other children; plays cooperatively and shows interest in other children's bodies.
• Oral Health
• Supervise brushing twice a day with a small amount of fluoridated toothpaste.
• Take your 4-year-old to the dentist again this year and schedule re-checks as recommended by the dentist.
• If the child sucks his or her fingers or thumb, ask the dentist how to discourage these habits. Stop pacifier use.
• Continue giving a fluoride supplement if your drinking water is not fluoridated. Some dentists recommend fluoride be continued through age 8; others recommend continuing through age 12 or 16. Check with your pediatrician and dentist.
• Learn how to prevent dental injuries and what to do in case of a dental emergency, especially the loss or fracture of a tooth.

• Feeding
• The 4-year-old continues in a period of relatively slow growth. Average weight gain per year is only three to four pounds. Therefore, the appetite still is not what most parents (or grandparents) think it should be. Remember, feeding problems may arise if parents make their child eat more than he or she needs to, or show too much concern in what their child eats.
• Provide snacks rich in carbohydrates and limit high-fat, low nutrient foods.
• The 4-year-old can and usually insists on feeding himself or herself.
• Mealtime should be pleasant and food should never be forced. Provide nutritious foods and let your child decide what and how much to eat. Offer small portions with the availability of a second helping.
• The 4-year-old will often imitate peers in food likes and dislikes.
• Avoid nuts, hard candy, uncut grapes, hot dogs or raw vegetables. Control sweets and avoid junk food.
• Eat dinner together as a family whenever possible.
• Insist on good table manners and encourage pleasant conversation during meals.
• Turn the TV off during meals.

• Sleep
• An afternoon nap may still be necessary.
• Fears of the dark, thunder, lightning, etc. are quite common at this age.
• Maintain a consistent bedtime and bedtime routine, using a night light, security blanket or toy are all ways to help lessen nighttime fears.
• Nightmares can wake a child up from sleep. They can be triggered by changes or stress. Reassure your child and put him or her back to bed.

• Immunizations
• Since immunization schedules vary from doctor to doctor, and new vaccines may have been introduced, it is always best to seek the advice of your child's health care provider concerning your child's vaccine schedule.
• Your child may receive one or more immunization depending on your doctor's schedule. Other doctors prefer to wait until the child is five for these immunizations.
• Annual flu vaccines may be recommended for children with chronic illnesses like asthma and heart defects. Check with your doctor.
• If the child can cooperate or a problem is suspected, vision and hearing will also be checked. The child's blood pressure will be recorded. A urinalysis will be preformed and many physicians apply a tuberculin test at this checkup as well.
• The following immunizations may be given at the 4-year old checkup.
• 1 dose of DTaP vaccine
• 1 dose of the MMR vaccine
• 1 dose of the Inactivated Polio Vaccine

• Toilet Training
• By age 4, 95 percent of children are bowel trained.
• By age 4, 90 percent of children are dry in the daytime and 75 percent at night.
• Safety
• Your child continues to require close supervision. Accidents continue to be the principal cause of death in children in this age group.
• Know where your child is at all times. A 4-year-old is too young to be roaming the neighborhood alone. If your home uses gas appliances, install and maintain carbon monoxide detectors.
• The purchase of a trampoline is not recommended because of the risk of serious injury.
• Insist that your home and car be smoke free.
• Select toys that are safe.
• Electrical tools, firearms, matches and poisons should be locked up, out of reach.
• The child should not have unsupervised access to, or ride a bike in, the street.
• Some 4-year-olds can be taught their full name, address and phone number.
• If bicycling, teach safety rules and insist on helmet use.
• It is too early to expect your child to look both ways before crossing the street.
• Supervise all street crossings.
• Continue to use a car seat or booster seat secured properly until the child weighs at least 60 pounds or his or her head is higher than the back of the rear seat. The greatest risk to your child's health continues to be motor vehicle accidents.
• Remember, it is impossible for you to protect your child during an accident by just holding him or her. Set a good example by always using a seat belt when driving.
• Always walk behind your car before backing out of the driveway.
• Many 4-year-olds are fairly good "swimmers," but knowing how to "swim" does not make the youngster water safe. Never leave a child unattended in a bathtub, even for a few seconds. Ensure that your child wears a life vest if boating.
• There is no such thing as a "child proof cap." Ingestion of toxic substances is common at this age. Keep syrup of Ipecac in the home to be used only as directed by your child's doctor or the poison control center.
• Never buy toys or other objects that can be cut or ingested. Suffocation by plastic bags and balloons still occurs at this age.
• Be especially careful when using power lawn mowers and other power tools.
• Test smoke detectors to ensure they are working properly.
• Continue to use a water proof sunscreen on your child before he or she goes outside. If possible, avoid the hours between 10 a.m. and 3 p.m. when the sun is the most dangerous.
• Advise your 4-year-old to be careful around strange dogs, especially ones that are eating.
• Begin to teach your child not to talk to strangers or accept food from strangers. Teach your child the first and last names of family members.
• Teach your child pedestrian safety ("look both ways before crossing the street").

• Illnesses
• The 4-year-old experiences less respiratory infections, such as colds, ear infections and sinus infections than the previous year. Begin to teach good habits: washing his or her hands after using the toilet, putting his or her hands in front of his or her mouth before coughing or sneezing, and washing his or her hands after coughing or sneezing.
• Remember, most illnesses at this age are viral, which means antibiotics will not shorten the course of the illness.

• Immunizations
• Since immunization schedules vary from doctor to doctor, and new vaccines may have been introduced, it is always best to seek the advice of your child's health care provider concerning your child's vaccine schedule.
• Your child may receive one or more immunization depending on your doctor's schedule. Other doctors prefer to wait until the child is five for these immunizations.
• Annual flu vaccines may be recommended for children with chronic illnesses like asthma and heart defects. Check with your doctor.
• If the child can cooperate or a problem is suspected, vision and hearing will also be checked. The child's blood pressure will be recorded. A urinalysis will be preformed and many physicians apply a tuberculin test at this checkup as well.
• The following immunizations may be given at the 4-year old checkup. 1 dose of DTaP vaccine
• 1 dose of the MMR vaccine
• 1 dose of the Inactivated Polio Vaccine
• 1 dose of the varicella (chickenpox vaccine)

Perbendaharaan Kata

Perbendaharaan kata merujuk kepada:

• perkataan yang kita mesti tahu untuk berkomunikasi secara efektif.
• Oral Vocabulary merujuk kepada perkataan-perkataan yang digunakan di dalam perbualan atau memahaminya semasa mendengar.
• Reading Vocabulary merujuk kepada perkataan yang kita kenal atau tahu atau kita gunakan di dalam penulisan dan pembacaan
  

Perbendaharaan kata penting kerana

• pembaca awal perlu menggunakan oral vocabulary untuk memahami perkataan yang mereka lihat atau baca.
• pembaca mesti tahu makna perkataan sebelum mereka faham keseluruhan bahan yang sedang mereka baca.

Perbendaharaan kata boleh dibina secara

• tidak langsung, apabila kanak-kanak gunakan di dalam perbualan seharian, mendengar orang dewasa membaca untuk mereka dan membaca sendiri secara extensive.
• langsung, bila kanak-kanak diajar secara eksplisit makna setiap perkataan dan melalui strategi pembelajaran mengenal perkataan. Misalnya memahami maksud perkataan seerti dan berlawan atau menamakan benda-benda yang ada di sekeliling mereka.
  

Helping Your Child at Home with Vocabulary Building

SUMBER: http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/learning/vocabulary.shtml

Parents are the first "language models" for children. The language children use is modeled, or based, on what they hear from their parents. Parents need to create an environment that enriches what a child hears. The words he hears, he will use with encouragement.

To start, take a look for a moment at the words you use-and how you use them, Children who repeatedly hear, "I seen it" will imitate that language. And the probability is great that if they speak that way, they will write that way.

Encourage family discussions. Turn off the TV and talk. One of the best places is the dinner table. That's one of the few times an entire family is together. In a sense, it's a "captive" audience. Set up some ground rules, such as "No eat and run," and "Everyone will have something to talk about" during and after supper. It's a kind of "hear and tell" time. What to talk about? Things going on in the neighborhood, what happened at school, events that are coming up, family plans, family decisions, et cetera. But remember the conversation should be pleasant and relaxing. This is NOT the time to bring up sins of omission or commission.

If your child has started formal spelling at school, post the list on the refrigerator door. Use those words with your child as discussions arise. Encourage him to use them in his responses.

If you have a cassette recorder, make a tape of words. Say the word, define it, and then use it in a sentence. (Select words that he will find interesting.) Better yet, have the child do the taping. Encourage regular use of the tape. (If he's studying for a spelling test, he can also spell it on the tape.)

"Word of the Week" is a family game-like activity. Each person selects a word taking turns each week. For example, the first week it might be Mother who writes a word on a card and puts it on the refrigerator door. Everyone must use that word as much as possible that week. The next week it's Dad's turn, and then the children's turn, and so on until it is Mother's turn again. As the words are used, they are posted on a cabinet door to stimulate continued Usage.

"Ten Questions" is a game that promotes several teaming skills, chief of which is reasoning with words. One family member thinks of something, which the other players must guess with no more than ten questions. The first question always is "Is it animal, vegetable, or mineral?" This covers virtually every possible thing the child could think of. Then, question by question, the field is narrowed to likely possibilities. After the first questions, the following questions must be asked so that they can be answered by "yes" or "no."

For some youngsters, "Ten Questions" might be too demanding, so make it "Twenty Questions. " One of the values of the extension is that additional reasoning and logic can be expressed. Stretch the game as much as possible. You can show, for example, the process of moving from broad-based questions to more discrete ones. In this way, your child will team to ask questions such as, "Is it located in the Northern Hemisphere?" "Is it in the Western Hemisphere?" "Is it in the United States?" "Is it land based?" and so on. This becomes an exercise not only in vocabulary development but also in geography.

Encourage the use of a "log" or "diary. " And Pen Pal Clubs are easy to find and join.

Enter a subscription to a child's magazine. There are many of these, and they cover practically every interest area of children: cars, sports, computers, the out-of-doors, et cetera. (Information from the articles makes an ideal subject for family discussions.)

If distant family members have cassette players, send "letters" on tape. Each family member has his or her "say," and then the tape is mailed to the distant relative to listen to on his tape recorder. That person then adds some comments and either returns it or passes it on to another family member.

Play games with homonyms - words that sound alike but are spelled differently and mean something different, as in "sun" and "son." For example, on the versatile refrigerator door, post train rain- or "reign-rain" or" pray-prey" or "flower -flour." Ask family members to add to the list. You'll be surprised at how many homonyms they will uncover

Another way of encouraging vocabulary development is the penny game," which can be played even if your child is having difficulty with reading. You might use a comic book, the comic strips or sports pages in your local newspaper, or a magazine article- To play the game, the child must know that some words start with a consonant followed by a vowel-for example, "say, look, go, pay," et etc. that other words begin with two consonants (called a blend) such as "grow, plate, tray, brush," etc. (Note: Some words do start with two or three consonants but are not true blends because one letter is silent, as in "white". gnat, pneumonia," etc.) Tell the child you'll give him a penny for every word he underlines that starts with a blend.

A follow-up to the "penny game" is to list words in "teams," such as fog/frog, bake/brake, pay/play, say/stay," et cetera.

A guessing game can be fun. "I'm thinking of a word that starts with "br" that is something you use to paint a house." (Brush) "I'm thinking of a word that starts with "tr" that is something we do to the bushes when they get too large." (Trim)

A traditional game that most children enjoy is "My father owns " Example: "My father owns a grocery store, and in it he sells something that begins with the letter B. " If the child does not know the alphabet, letter sounds can be used.

Revolving blend- is another family game in which someone gives a common blend-for example, "tr"--and, in sequence around the table or room, everyone must think of a word that begins with that blend-"train, truck, truffle, try, tray, trumpet, truce." et cetera. When the list is exhausted, the last person begins another blend, such as "st"--"stay, start, stick, stuck, star," etc.

Word origins or facts about words can be fascinating family fare. For example, the word "salary" had its origin in "salarium," which is Latin for salt. Roman soldiers received their pay in salt. Ask your librarian to help you find books that will provide other interesting examples of the origin of common words.

Suffixes are clues to word meanings. For example, "er" or "or" at the end of a word suggests "one who." Example: conductor-one who conducts; trainer-one who trains, etc. Each week a new suffix can be selected to create words.

The "Take a Walk" game is an activity that brings family members together in an enjoyable, relaxing way. It takes at least two people. A walk is taken around the neighborhood or perhaps around a local shopping area. On one trip the thrust may be, "Let's name everything we see that begins with the letter B." On another walk, it might be naming everything that begins with the letter G. Or everything that is the color purple. You might add an element of fun by saying, "We'll get one point for every word we name. Let's see how many points we can get." (Involves arithmetic as well as vocabulary.)

A rhyming game is always fun, particularly for young children because they can say any "word," nonsense or sense. Start with things the child knows, such as parts of his body, and say, "I'm thinking of something on your face that rhymes with (sounds like) rose." From this point, once your child gets the idea, you can play it just by saying words, such as "what's a word that rhymes with car?" (jar, bar, star, far, et cetera) "How about a word that rhymes with junk?" (bunk, skunk, trunk-but even runk lunk zunk as nonsense words). Nor only does this quick little game build vocabulary, but it also teaches the child some fine-tuning for the sounds of words.

Children listen, then use words, then read them, and, finally, write them. What they team at home about words supports success in school. A great deal of the learning that takes place at home is effective because it isn't a repeat of school. Once it becomes too formal and too "school-like," it will lose its appeal.

Parents who talk to their children, and who encourage interaction win lay a healthy platform for academic success. And children will quickly realize that words need not be drudgery but can be exciting and interesting.

Kenapa perbendaharaan kata penting kepada kanak-kanak?

Saya sambung kembali perbincangan mengenai penguasaan perbendaharaan kata kanak-kanak. Kenapa perbendaharaan kata penting kepada kanak-kanak? Anda perlu baca artikel di bawah ini dengan lebih mendalam agar anda faham kenapa ianya sangat mustahak dalam kehidupan murid-murid dan anak atau generasi anda sendiri. Biarpun banyak kajian dilakukan di Barat namun ia boleh kita tiru dan lakukan di sini untuk mengubah nasib bangsa. Lakukanlah sesuatu dari sekarang kerana inilah tugas kita sebenarnya kerana tanpa kanak-kanak prasekolah ini kita sudah pasti tidak mendapat pekerjaan. Semoga anda yang masih terlena atau terleka dapat bangun dan memperbaiki usaha yang ada. Hanya Allah sahaja bakal memberi ganjaran yang setimpal. Jangan harapkan ihsan manusia tapi harapkan ihsan Allah yang kekal abadi. Selamat membaca.

Early struggles in vocabulary development can hamper economically disadvantaged children

University Park, Pa. -- When socioeconomically deprived children fall behind in spoken vocabulary development during their first three years of life, they are very likely to have lifelong struggles in all their studies in school. Even current early intervention programs such as Head Start may not be enough to close this learning gap, says a Penn State researcher.

"Those children in our society who grow up in poverty or near poverty are adversely affected by their mother's own vocabulary deficit during their earliest years when they are learning to speak at home," says Dr. George Farkas, professor of sociology.

"Social class differences in vocabulary growth emerge at the very earliest ages among both Black and White Americans, and they attain a substantial magnitude by 36 months of age," Farkas notes. "These social class differences widen during the fourth and fifth years of life, although this occurs more strongly among African-Americans than among Whites. Half of the social class differences in vocabulary growth rates can be traced to the differences in family linguistic instruction provided by mothers of varying social classes."

By the time children reach age 6 and the first grade, they are learning to read, and from that point their vocabulary development, regardless of class or race, proceeds roughly at the same pace. Unfortunately for disadvantaged children, their earlier deficiencies in vocabulary learning will continue to have long-term repercussions in their teenage years, especially in the areas of vocabulary, reading and mathematics.

In adult years, the consequences are often low-skill and poorly paid jobs that perpetuate the cycle of poverty, according to Farkas, a faculty member in Penn State's College of the Liberal Arts and a faculty associate with Penn State's Population Research Institute.

Farkas and Dr. Kurt Beron of the School of Social Sciences at the University of Texas at Dallas, presented their findings, "Family Linguistic Culture and Social Reproduction: Verbal Skill from Parent to Child in the Preschool and School Years," recently at the annual meeting of the Population Association of America in Washington, D.C.

Between 1986 and 1996, data were collected from several thousand children between the ages of 3 and 14, including the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT), comprised of 175 increasingly difficult words. The tester read the word to the child, who then pointed to one of the 4 pictures that best described its meaning. When the child failed to identify 6 out of 8 consecutive items, the test ended, and the child was assigned a score or "ceiling."

"By analyzing these data according to the child's month of age, beginning at 36 months, we were able to examine the trajectory of oral vocabulary growth by social class in unprecedented detail," Farkas notes.

The researchers also compared the child's progress in vocabulary development with the mother's "linguistic cultural capital" as determined by the Armed Forces Qualification Test (AFQT). Given to this particular sample of women in 1980, the AFQT measures skills and habits of vocabulary and speech.

"It is not enough that the mother herself have a good vocabulary," the Penn State researcher says. "It is also necessary for mothers to teach letters to their babies, talk out loud to them and read books to them regularly and consistently. "This is much less likely to happen when the mother is trapped on the bottom rungs of the socioeconomic ladder and is consumed by financial and emotional pressures or stresses, he adds.

The authors conclude that federal and local programs and policies must be aimed at improving the early vocabulary development and school readiness skills of children from low-income households. In particular, the Bush administration's emphasis on improving the letter, sound, word recognition and pre-reading skills instruction provided by Head Start and similar programs is well-targeted on an important instructional area, which is vital to the schooling success of low-income children, Farkas notes.

Ciri-ciri Kanak-kanak Berkeperluan Khas

Assalamualaikum
Malam ini saya terpanggil untuk menjawab soalan yang diajukan oleh Lyn. Sebenarnya sebelum mengajar di kelas prasekolah, saya merupakan guru pemulihan dan guru Pendidikan Khas Bermasalah Pembelajaran. Bagi anda yang menghadapi masalah murid yang bermasalah, berikut adalah ciri-ciri kanak-kanak tersebut. Adalah dinasihatkan agar anda merujuk perkara ini kepada pihak hospital selepas mengadakan perbincangan dengan ibu bapa. Di peringkat awal anda akan dapati ada ibu bapa yang tidak dapat menerima hakikat kecacatan anak mereka. Syorkan mereka untuk mendapatkan nasihat doktor untuk membantu pemulihan anak-anak mereka di peringkat awal. Harap maklumat ringkas ini dapat membantu anda menyelesaikan masalah yang dihadapi di kelas. Selamat Bertugas.

Kecacatan

Ciri-ciri Khusus

Autisme

Perlakuan yang bongkak Ketawa dengan tiba-tiba Perkataan yang diulang berkali-kali dan gagap. Tidak mengenali bahaya. Tidak merasai kesakitan. Menangis dan marah tanpa sebab. Permainan yang luar biasa. Tidak mahu didakap. Tidak dapat menyesuaikan diri dengan kanak-kanak lain. Berkelakuan seperti orang pekak. Tiada perhubungan mata bila bercakap. Memutar barang. Tidak dapat mengawal keseimbangan fizikal. Tingkahlaku aktif keterlaluan. Tidak mahu terima pelajaran biasa. Mengigit kuku, hisap jari dan mencederakan diri. Takut dan cemburu berlebihan.

Ciri-ciri Khusus

Kecacatan

Mulut yang sentiasa terbuka dan tidak tertutup rapat. Lidah yang tebal, kasar dan pendek, serta cenderung terjelir. Mata sentiasa berair dan merah. Mata sepet iaitu bahagian luarnya naik ke atas dan terdapat lipatan pada kedua-dua sisi hidung yang menutupi bahagian dalam mata. Bentuk muka yang kecil. Bahagian kepala leper. Tangan yang lebar dan pendek serta garisan tapak tangan satu melintang. Majoriti berambut lurus dan lembut. Jari dan tangan lebar yang pendek dan berbonggol. Berbadan gembal dan rendak. Badan yang agak bongkok. Suka bermanja, bermain dan gembira. Dapat bergaul dengan baik. IQ di antara 30 hingga 80. Kecacatan dapat dikesan sebaik selepas lahir.

Sindrom Down

Kecacatan

Ciri-ciri Khusus

Cacat Akal Ringan

1. Idiot Tidak dapat melindungi diri daripada bahaya fizikal dan mungkin mencederakan diri sendiri. 2. Imbersil Tidak boleh mengurus diri tetapi masih boleh dilatih. 3. Moron Perlukan jagaan, kawalan dan tunjuk ajar khas. Perkembangan mental hanya 23% daripada kadar biasa. Lambat berjalan dan lambat bercakap. 4. Lembab Lambat menerima pelajaran dan sukar sesuaikan diri dengan situasi sekolah biasa.

Ciri-ciri Khusus

Kecacatan

Kesukaran ketika makan dan selalu muntah. Mengigit sesuatu dalam mulut dan tidak mahu mengeluarkannya. Air liur yang meleleh tanpa kawalan. Sukar bernafas. Sukar tidur dan terjaga waktu malam. Selalu menangis. Sukar bercakap dan memahami orang lain. Suara terlalu lembut, mengau atau sengau. Tidak menoleh jika dipanggil dan tidak bertindak balas terhadap bunyi. Kebingungan pada cahaya lampu, bunyian dan sentuhan. Tidur yang berlebihan. Kanak-kanak yang pendiam dan menyendiri.

Cacat Akal Berat

Kecacatan	Ciri-ciri Khusus
Hyperaktif	Aktiviti fizikal yang agresif dan berlebihan. Tindakan yang berlebihan terhadap rangsangan cahaya, bunyi dan warna. Tidur yang tidak tetap. Terlalu kerap menangis atau ketawa. Sukar beri tumpuan terhadap permainan atau kerja yang dilakukan. Mengubah aktiviti atau tindakan secara mengejut. Mudah mengamuk bila kehendaknya dihalang. Sukar menyesuaikan diri dan berinteraksi dengan rakan sebaya.

Ciri-ciri Khusus	Kecacatan
Murung dan menyendiri. Aktiviti fizikal yang pasif. Tiada respond pada persekitaran. Suka termenung. Tidak suka bergaul atau berinteraksi. Menundukkan muka bila nama dipanggil. Suka bermain sendirian. Suka berkhayal.	Hypoaktif

Kecacatan	Ciri-ciri Khusus
Spastik	Sejenis kecacatan atau ketidaksempurnaan anggota tubuh badan. Tidak mencapai objek yang ditunjukkan. Tidak berupaya mengangkut badan. Tidak berupaya berpijak atau berdiri. Tidak berupaya memegang objek. Tidak berupaya mengurus diri.

Ciri-ciri Khusus	Kecacatan
Kebolehan yang luar biasa. Mempunyai masalah psiko-sosial seperti masalah kelakuan dan emosi. pergaulan dengan kanak-kanak lain. Perkembangan bahasa yang lambat. Perbendaharaan kata yang kemas. Tidak perlukan banyak tunjuk ajar ketika belajar. Kemukakan soalan yang bertalu-talu. Suka bergaul dengan orang yang lebih tua. Suka mencari helah.	Pintar Cerdas

Pemerhatian dan Penilaian Kanak-kanak

Ramai sering bertanya tentang bagaimana tentang nota atau bahan sumber berkaitan pemerhatian dan menilai pencapaian kanak-kanak prasekolah. Antara yang boleh anda baca adalah:

Early Childhood Assessment From Birth to Age 8
Quality in Early Childhood Care and Education Settings

Anda yang tinggal di sekitar Kuala Lumpur boleh mendapatkan banyak buku-buku berkaitan Pendidikan Awal Kanak-kanak sekiranya anda ke Perpustakaan Universiti Malaya atau ke Perdanasiswa. Buku-buku berkaitan ada di tingkat 3 bangunan perpustakaan (di tahun 1997-1999). Saya tidak pasti sama ada ianya berada di situ lagi. Untuk makluman anda sebenarnya nota berbahasa Melayu sewaktu saya menuntut di Universiti Malaya dulu telah musnah sewaktu banjir gelombang kedua di Kota Tinggi pada tahun 2007. Saya memohon maaf kerana tidak dapat membantu anda yang bertanyakan nota tersebut. Kesibukan di sekolah membuatkan saya tidak berupaya menterjemah semula bahan-bahan yang saya perolehi dahulu. Apa yang saya lakukan kini, penilaian dan pemerhatian lebih tertumpu kepada membuat senarai semak pencapaian kanak-kanak. Hasil kerja kanak-kanak perlu difailkan supaya dapat dijadikan pengukur kepada tahap pencapaian mereka. Hasil kerja kanak-kanak di awal tahun, pertengahan tahun dan di akhir tahun akan dapat menerangkan secara jelas tahap perkembangan mereka. Hanya anda selaku guru akan dapat melihat progres perkembangan tersebut. Adalah dicadangkan agar anda menjilid hasil kerja setiap kanak-kanak di samping menjimatkan masa untuk proses penyimpanan, ia juga menjadi sebuah dokumentasi berguna untuk menilai sejauh mana pencapaian kanak-kanak bagi sesuatu tema yang telah diajar.

Developmental milestone: Talking

By Sarah Henry

Talking: What to expect when
At this age, your child's sentences should be smooth, clear, and pop out easily with no apparent effort. Five-year-olds can tell you what happened, describe people in detail, and ask questions clearly. A kindergartner can explain what you do with common objects, talk in complex sentences that often run together, and use past, present, and future tenses of verbs, such as "sit," "sitting," "sits," "sat," and "will sit." She should be able to recall and repeat about eight words, and comfortably listen to stories, conversations, and movies.

What you'll hear
Your child should have a good grasp of language by now. Some things to listen for:

Pronunciation: Her speech should be easy to understand by now. Some 5-year-olds, though, still mangle three- or four-syllable words — "manimal" for "animal" or "pasghetti" for "spaghetti" — and that's nothing to worry about. And some kids still struggle with a few tricky consonant sounds. For instance, she may say a w or a y for an l, such as "yeg" instead of "leg," or use w for r, such as "wabbit" instead of "rabbit," or substitute an f for a th, such as "baf" instead of "bath." These minor pronunciation problems will probably improve over the next year or so and are usually no cause for concern.

Lisping: Your child may lisp, or pronounce the s sound like a th. "My sister is seven" becomes "My thithter ith theven." If your child's s sounds this way, chances are you needn't be alarmed. Many children do it, and most outgrow it with no intervention by age 7.

Stuttering: While it can cause parents concern, stuttering at this age is a normal developmental phase that many children go through. Your child is coming to the close of a great leap in her language skills, so it's natural that she may have some difficulty putting her sentences together fluently. (Before every leap forward, there is typically a period of disintegration, followed by integration of the new skills.) Her rapidly developing brain is trying to pull up the right words in the right order. She may repeat the whole word or first syllable (not just the first sound); this is what most people think of when they think of stuttering. You may notice your child stutters more when she is tired, excited, or upset. Most kids outgrow this phase by age 5 or 6.

What you can do
Reading to — and with — your child is a great way to boost her language skills. Books help a child add words to her vocabulary, make sense of grammar, and link meanings to pictures, says Desmond Kelly, a developmental-behavioral pediatrician who works with children with learning and language difficulties at the All Kinds of Minds Institute in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. Likewise, simply talking with your child helps. Many parents find mealtimes and bedtimes are a great chance for talking. These may be the only pauses in a busy day when you have a chance to chat with and really listen to your kids.

When your kindergartner does stumble over long words, resist the urge to correct her speech. Instead, model the right pronunciation of these tongue twisters when it's your turn to talk. For instance, say: "Yes, we're having spaghetti for dinner" instead of "It's 'spaghetti,' not 'pasghetti!'"

You can also take steps at home to help a child who stutters. Keep your voice soft and relaxed, your speech slow — think Mr. Rogers. Don't tell your daughter to slow down, though, you should simply listen and wait for her to finish her sentence or story. Maintain eye contact, smile, and be patient. If you turn away and act hurried, your child will feel pressure to "get it out," and this will only make her stuttering worse. Allow your child to express her frustration or embarrassment. She may say: "I can't say it. It won't come out." Acknowledge her feelings by saying: "I understand how frustrating that must be."

If your child lisps, pop a straw in her drinks. This kind of sucking motion promotes good oral-motor strength, which is important in language development. Encourage play activities that improve oral-motor strength. Have your child blow into a party horn that has a small, round mouthpiece. This is a good exercise because the effort needed to make a solid sound also strengthens the lips and cheek muscles, and tends to push the tongue back in. Blowing bubbles is another good exercise. Or have your child look in a mirror and practice putting her teeth together while she makes an s sound. This exercise can help her remember to keep her tongue behind her teeth. If she gets frustrated or upset practicing this routine, let it go — there's no point in making her self-conscious about something she'll probably outgrow on her own. Finally, encourage her to blow her nose. Stuffy nasal passages are sometimes the culprit behind lisping.

Source: http://parentcenter.babycenter.com/refcap/bigkid/gdevelopment/66695.html

The power of peers

By Sarah Henry

Making friends is an important mission for your 5-year-old, as he increasingly separates from the family and broadens his horizons with the larger social circle that kindergarten brings. At this age, having social relationships is a truly gratifying experience. Your 5-year-old will take pride in telling you, "I like him. He's my friend." You'll also start seeing a shift in your child's allegiance away from you and the family and toward his peers, who he'll spend more time with than ever before. Your child may also start to believe that information he gets from his playmates is the indisputable truth, even if it's not.

Friendly feedback
Five-year-olds learn a lot about themselves from the feedback they get from friends, and other kids' reactions play a significant role in their developing self-image. If his classmates comment on how well he catches a ball, for instance, he may think he's athletic. Or if other kids laugh at his jokes, he may decide he's funny. In other words, he'll start to develop a more complex idea of who he is from his encounters with peers. If his peers accept him, he'll feel full of self-worth. If his peers reject or ridicule him, however, his self-esteem may plummet.

A matter of choice
At this age, children find their own friends. They often pick pals with similar traits, patterns of play, interests, activities, or hobbies. Don't force a friendship if the chemistry isn't there. As with adults, not every child's temperament, personality, or style clicks with every other 5-year-old. Don't be overly concerned about how many friends your child has or whether or not he's popular. Some kids are happy to spend a lot of time with one best friend; other, more gregarious souls thrive on having many good buddies. As long as the friends have a positive influence on each other, stay out of it, says Denver-based pediatrician Edward Goldson, a member of the American Academy of Pediatric's committee on the psychosocial aspects of child and family health. "If you want your child to establish good peer relationships, then your job is simply to protect, observe, and let them flourish."

Positive peer pressure
Five-year-olds will make a concerted effort to share, please their playmates, and resolve conflicts on their own. If your child wants to play with his buddy's skateboard, for instance, he and his friend will find a way to take turns that they can both accept. Peers can also encourage, support, and challenge each other to try harder in school, sports, and artistic avenues. If your child's best buddy is a bookworm, his enthusiasm for reading may be all your child needs to get hooked on books. Similarly, your child may strive a little harder on the playing field if he wants to emulate a friend who's a standout at soccer.

Not-so-positive peer pressure
When your child reaches kindergarten, his desire to be accepted by his peer group may lead to dangerous or antisocial behavior. "If I don't draw on the desk with my friends, they won't like me," he might reason. While you can't choose whom your child picks as friends, you can point out when peers are encouraging him to act in a way that isn't true to his nature. Then, rather than telling him what to do, ask him questions about this peer predicament to help him figure out a solution on his own.

Resist the urge to banish a bad egg from your child's social circle. Most children won't respond well if you tell them not to spend time with someone they consider a good friend. Instead, encourage your child's friendships with other kids whose behavior, values, and interests meet with your approval. Invite these children to your home or to accompany you on organized activities with your child.

When the opportunity arises, let your child know in a calm, reasonable tone what concerns you about his difficult playmates. Focus on specific behaviors (why Billy's bullying bothers you or why Tommy's troublemaker tendencies tick you off) rather than criticizing the child's character. Don't forbid him from hanging out with these pals, but do let him know what the consequences will be if he engages in their unacceptable behavior. That way, you can bolster your child's self-esteem by showing that you trust him to take responsibility for his actions and make the right decisions.

What to watch out for
If your child truly has no friends (particularly if he says he's lonely, feels socially inadequate, or has low self-esteem) it may be cause for concern. Your child could have trouble making friends for a whole host of reasons. He may be shy or overly aggressive, or have a speech impediment or poor gross motor skills, which could limit his ability to participate in games. In a subtle, non-intrusive manner, try to find out why your child doesn't have pals. If he senses you're anxious about the situation, he may withdraw or deny that he has a problem. Calmly ask him questions such as, "Are there children at school whom you would like to be friends with?" and "Are you worried about what the other kids think of you?"

Casually observe your child in action with his peers, talk with his teachers, and then — equipped with this information — sit down with your child to chat about any difficulties he has finding friends. Together, map out a plan he can follow that may make it easier for him to succeed socially. Suggest that he invite someone over who he'd like to be a friend. Or point out your child's strengths — his passion for painting, for example — and help him find opportunities to meet other children with the same interest, such as at an art class.

If your efforts to help your child aren't successful and he continues to have problems making friends, seek help from his pediatrician or a child psychologist. Although this can be a difficult and painful process for parents and children alike, once a child gains the confidence and tools he needs to get along with his peers, he'll reap the rewards and experience the joys of true friendship.

Source: http://parentcenter.babycenter.com/refcap/bigkid/gdevelopment/66712.html

Shyness

By Anne Krueger

Shyness and kindergartners
As your child prepares to start kindergarten, behavior that seemed natural and even expected as a preschooler — tearful good-byes, a reluctance to join in group activities or to engage in conversation with new people — may become worrisome now. But although at times kindergartners can seem oh-so-grown-up, some are still just catching on to the rules of social interaction. And many children continue to be bashful — especially when faced with new situations.

Will my child always be shy?
Of course, shyness isn't always developmental. But the notion that a baby is born with specific personality traits is a relatively new one. Experts long believed that environment was primarily responsible for shaping a child's character. It's now believed that a child's behavior patterns are a result of both genetic and environmental influences. Thus, your kindergartner's temperament may predispose her to be wary of new situations and slow to warm up to the unfamiliar.

How can I encourage my shy kindergartner?
How you nurture your child at this age can boost her self-esteem. Rather than striving to change your 5-year-old, gently prepare her for any situation she's likely to find difficult. If your kindergartner tends to come unglued at noisy, crowded events like a birthday party, for instance, try preparing for the event by planning a mock party at home. Use a puppet to represent the shy child. You provide the dialogue for the shy puppet, and let your child be the parent. Her job: Help the shy puppet feel more comfortable in social situations. Another approach: Ask your child to articulate her "What if" fears about the event. Then brainstorm together for solutions. To further boost her confidence, consider role-playing each of the scenarios.

How can I prepare my shy child for kindergarten?

• Take your child for a classroom tour. She'll be more relaxed if she gets to spend some time in her classroom and meet the teacher before her first day. Also, show her the bathroom, her cubby, and the principal's office, so she'll feel more at ease in her new surroundings.

• Practice talking to other children and adults. Make a game of it: Ask your 5-year-old to be the tour guide when her best friend visits your house, or encourage her to place her own order at a restaurant. She'll not only become more comfortable with other people but also begin to understand the give-and-take of conversation. If she tends to whisper or mumble, her shyness may stem from the frustration of not being understood, which will subside as she becomes more articulate.

• Enlist an older sibling. If your shy child has a brother or sister in the same school, ask the older child to look out for the younger one. A friendly wave or a knowing glance — even if it's just in passing — can provide momentary respite from the fear of not fitting in.

• Create a good-bye ritual. Sneaking away when you think she won't notice can backfire — she may be upset that she didn't get to hug or kiss you before you left, and you could undermine her trust in you. Also, let her know when and where she can expect to be picked up (for instance, when the 3 p.m. bell rings in the lunchroom). For more information about separation and independence, click here.

How can I help my shy child make friends?
Introduce her to one potential friend at a time. Don't expect much at the first meeting. It may take several short get-togethers before both children click. If your child can form an attachment with one child, she'll learn more about how to handle herself socially, and her friend will help her enter a larger group when the time comes. She may also benefit from playing with children of different ages. An older child can take the lead and break the ice, while a younger child may look up to your child, boosting her confidence.

What's wrong with labeling my child as shy?
It's rarely beneficial for a child to have a label attached to her, whether it's one that places undue pressure on her ("gifted," for instance), or one that excuses unsociable behavior ("Oh, she's just shy"). The fact is, she may not even think of herself shy. But say it often enough, and she'll come to believe it. Likewise, your kindergartner may not think that being shy is such a big deal — to her it's only natural — but if you talk about it as if it is, you'll send a message that suggests she has some sort of defect. Consider saying, "It takes her a little while to get comfortable in a new situation," instead of labeling her as shy.

If your child has already been labeled shy, try altering that self-image by letting her overhear something positive. When she's in earshot, discuss how friendly she has become or make a fuss over some effort she made to be social. It's equally important to encourage relatives, family friends, and teachers to avoid labeling.

Should I seek professional help?
For the best gauge of your child's ability to socialize, look to her friends. Does she have any? Does she talk about them? If she always seems to be alone, ask her teacher about it. It's possible that you don't see those moments when she's happily interacting. If, however, they agree that your child is having more trouble socializing than most kids her age, talk to your child's pediatrician, who may suggest a developmental evaluation.

Source: http://parentcenter.babycenter.com/refcap/bigkid/gdevelopment/66731.html

How Much Exercise Does My Kindergartner Need?

By David Geller, pediatrician [See Biography]

Answer: It's important to give your child lots of opportunities to get physical — kindergartners figure out what their bodies can do (and burn off energy) by running, jumping, climbing, and exploring their world. Kids this age are usually so active that they get the exercise they need just from going about their daily routine (skipping, dancing, chasing, and wrestling). Some kindergartners, though, may need some extra encouragement. It may be as simple as getting your child outside to play ball, chase butterflies, or climb the jungle gym. You'll want to check, too, to see that her school provides recess and plenty of space to run and play.

By now, most kids have grown out of their baby fat. If you're worried about your kindergartner's weight, talk to her pediatrician. If she's too sedentary, replace quieter activities (playing computer games and watching TV) with more energetic ones (riding a bike or roller blading). And make sure you get active with her as much as you can. Play tag in the backyard, start a kickball game at a nearby field, or take a brisk after-dinner walk together.

On the weekends, make sure some family outings are active ones (for instance, hiking, swimming at the local pool, sledding in the park, or riding on a bike trail) instead of sedentary ones, such as taking a drive. Since kindergartners love to be around their friends, invite one of her pals over to splash in the pool or run through the sprinklers. Or bundle them both up to go sledding or have a snowball fight. Kindergartners also enjoy going to the playground with good buddies to slide, swing, climb, and chase each other. If your child seems interested in signing up for a team sport, go ahead and let her. Just make sure that the main focus is on making fitness fun and developing skills — not producing a world-class athlete or burying the competition.

Source: http://parentcenter.babycenter.com/expert/bigkid/gdevelopment/71134.html